INTRODUCTION:
X-ray machines are used to take pictures of dense tissues such as bones and teeth because of highly penetrating ionizing radiation called x-rays. X-rays originate from a source that is an x-ray generator pass through the body and onto a photographic cassette.
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| Digital x-ray equipment; Source: http://siemens-healthliners.com/ |
DISCOVERY:
In 1895 Wilhelm roentgen, a German physicist made the remarkable discovery while experimenting with electron beams in a gas discharge tube. During his experiment, Roentgen noticed that a fluorescent screen started to glow in his laboratory when the electron beam turned on.
Roentgen found that the tube was surrounded by heavy block cardboard, thus he assumed this would have blocked most of the radiation. When his wife put her hand in front of the tube, he saw the silhouette of her bones projected onto the fluorescent screen. And finally, Roentgen had discovered X-rays.
Roentgen found that the tube was surrounded by heavy block cardboard, thus he assumed this would have blocked most of the radiation. When his wife put her hand in front of the tube, he saw the silhouette of her bones projected onto the fluorescent screen. And finally, Roentgen had discovered X-rays.
Roentgen’s first hand x-ray; Source: http://orau.org/
WORKING OF X-RAY:
X-ray technology has allowed us to see inside the human body since 1985. Roentgen’s remarkable discovery precipitated one of the most important medical advancements in human history.
Medical x-rays are used to generate images of structures and tissues inside the human body. The x-rays produced from the source that is the x-ray generator then it allows to pass through the target organ and finally, it allows to pass through the x-ray detector which is placed on the other side of the patient. Then an image of the target organ will be formed that represents the shadows formed by the objects inside the body.
To create a radiograph the patient must be correctly positioned so that the part of the body being imaged is located between an x-ray source and the x-ray detector. When the x-ray machine is turned on, x-rays are generated and travel through the body and absorbed in different amounts by different tissues, depending mainly on the radiological density of the tissues they pass through.
The density and the atomic number of the target determine the radiological density. Example: Bones readily absorbs more x-rays they produce high contrast on the x-ray detector. As a result of absorption, bonny structures appear brighter than other tissues as they have heavy absorption of x-rays. And the dense tissues such as muscle and fat appear in shades of grey on a radiograph.
Medical x-rays are used to generate images of structures and tissues inside the human body. The x-rays produced from the source that is the x-ray generator then it allows to pass through the target organ and finally, it allows to pass through the x-ray detector which is placed on the other side of the patient. Then an image of the target organ will be formed that represents the shadows formed by the objects inside the body.
To create a radiograph the patient must be correctly positioned so that the part of the body being imaged is located between an x-ray source and the x-ray detector. When the x-ray machine is turned on, x-rays are generated and travel through the body and absorbed in different amounts by different tissues, depending mainly on the radiological density of the tissues they pass through.
The density and the atomic number of the target determine the radiological density. Example: Bones readily absorbs more x-rays they produce high contrast on the x-ray detector. As a result of absorption, bonny structures appear brighter than other tissues as they have heavy absorption of x-rays. And the dense tissues such as muscle and fat appear in shades of grey on a radiograph.
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS:
DEFINITION:
X-rays travel in waves along a straight line with a specific frequency and speed. X-rays are weightless packages of pure energy that are without electrical charge.
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| Properties of x-rays; Source: http://googleimages.com/ |
The properties of x-rays may be classified as:
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS:
• X-rays belong to a family of electromagnetic radiation.
• X-rays travel with the same speed as that of visible light (that is 1,86,000 miles per second).
• X-rays travel with a wavelength between 10A and 0.01A.
• X-rays cannot be reflected, refracted or deflected by a magnet or an electric field as they do not possess any charge.
• X-rays are pure energy, no mass, and are invisible to the eye and cannot be seen, heard or smelt.
• X-rays transfer energy from place to place in the form of photons.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
• X-rays cause several chemical changes in solution which are otherwise completely stable.
• X-rays bring about the destruction of fermenting power of enzymes.
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES:
• When x-rays are incident on an atom, there occurs a stable of excitation.
• This is an important cause of biological damage produced by radiation.
MEDICAL X-RAYS:
X-ray technology helps mainly in medical advancements either to diagnose or treat disease.
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| Medical x-rays; Source: http://xrayathome.com |
USES OF MEDICAL X-RAYS:
1) DIAGNOSTIC:
X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY:
X-ray radiography is used to detect bone fractures, pneumonia, calcifications, certain tumours, some type of injuries, dental problems, foreign objects and other abnormal masses.
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| Plain x-ray radiography; Source: http://insideradiology.com.au/ |
MAMMOGRAPHY:
Nowadays, breast cancer appears more commonly in women over 40 years of age. A radiograph of the breast is used for diagnosis of breast cancer. Tumours tend to appear as irregular regular-shaped masses that are somewhat brighter than the background on the radiograph, which is whiter on a black background and blacker on a white background. Mammograms are also used to detect microcalcification that is a tiny bit of calcium deposition which appears as bright specks on a mammogram.
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| 3D Mammography; Source: http://wilsonhealth.org/ |
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| Mammographic images; Source: http://runlipstickchemo.com/ |
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT):
A 3-dimensional image is formed by means of CT. CT is formed by the combination of traditional x-ray technology with computer processing. A series of cross-sectional images of the body is generated by means of computed tomography that can be later combined to form 3 dimensional x-ray images.
FLUOROSCOPY:
To view the real-time images of movement within the body, x-rays and a fluorescent screen is used, for instance, by following the path of the injected or swallowed contrasting agent the diagnostic process can occur.
Also, fluoroscopy is used to view the blood flow to the heart muscle as well as through the blood vessels and organs with the aid of radiographic contrast agents, to view the movement of the beating heart.
The fluoroscopic technique is used in Cardiac angioplasty, a minimally invasive procedure for opening clogged arteries; in this, a catheter is inserted through the femoral artery, also used with a radiographic contrast agent.
A 3-dimensional image is formed by means of CT. CT is formed by the combination of traditional x-ray technology with computer processing. A series of cross-sectional images of the body is generated by means of computed tomography that can be later combined to form 3 dimensional x-ray images.
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| A CT Scanner |
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| CT Scan images of Head |
FLUOROSCOPY:
To view the real-time images of movement within the body, x-rays and a fluorescent screen is used, for instance, by following the path of the injected or swallowed contrasting agent the diagnostic process can occur.
Also, fluoroscopy is used to view the blood flow to the heart muscle as well as through the blood vessels and organs with the aid of radiographic contrast agents, to view the movement of the beating heart.
The fluoroscopic technique is used in Cardiac angioplasty, a minimally invasive procedure for opening clogged arteries; in this, a catheter is inserted through the femoral artery, also used with a radiographic contrast agent.
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| Fluoroscopic equipment; Source: http://siemens-healthlineers.com/ |
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| Fluoroscopic heart; Source: http://thecgroups.com/ |
2) THERAPEUTIC:
RADIATION IN CANCER TREATMENT:
The cancerous tumour cells can be destroyed by using x-rays and other types of a high amount of radiation. Only a higher amount of radiation dose is given in cancer treatment than in diagnostic imaging. The treatment involves injecting a radioactive material into the bloodstream near tumour cells to destroy cancer cells and shrink tumours by damaging their DNA.
PROCEDURE OF X-RAY EXAMINATION:
• X-rays can be performed in a doctor’s office, hospitals, dentist’s office, etc...
• Depending on the type of image that doctor needs the procedure can take anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour.
• Firstly, the technician will position the patient’s body and the x-ray machine.
• The patient is advised to remain still or sometimes the patient may have to hold breathe during the x-ray, because the patient’s movement can cause blurry images.
• The whole process is painless.
• The contrast medium may be given to patients either by intravenous injection or by means of swallowing it.
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| The procedure of x-ray examination; Source: http://rlshumancare.com/ |
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF X-RAY MACHINE:
 |
| Block diagram of x-ray machine; Source: http://www.daenotes.com/ |
COMPONENTS OF X-RAY MACHINE:
X-ray has three main components:
• Operating console
• High-frequency generator
• X-ray tube
• Internal
• External
Other parts include:
• Collimator
• Bucky Grid
• X-ray film
OPERATING CONSOLE:
To control the x-ray tube current and voltage the operating console is used. By means of this, a useful x-ray beam with proper quantity and quality is delivered. Radiation quantity refers to the number of x-rays or the intensity of the x-ray beam. To control the line compensation, KVp, Ma, exposure time. Radiation quantity is usually expressed in milli roentgens / milli ampere-second.
HIGH-FREQUENCY GENERATOR:
To power the x-ray tube, a high-frequency generator is used. Earlier, a high voltage generator is used. High-frequency generator operates on single-phase and gives less voltage. Also it is of smaller size and portable.
X-RAY TUBE:
X-ray tube can be classified as:
• Internal
• External
Internal parts include:
• Cathode: A filament that causes thermionic emission.
• Anode: A flat disc made of tungsten that draws the electrons across the field.
• The tube is vacuumed so that x-rays are produced isotropically.
COLLIMATOR:
The collimator is attached to the x-ray below the glass window where the useful beam is emitted. To avoid unnecessary exposure, to minimize the field of view, a collimator is used. The lead shutter is used to restrict the beam.
BUCKY GRID:
Grid is similar to collimator but they have different positions. Grid is made of lead strips, these strips allowed rays at 90 degrees. The grid strips are placed right after the patient. It is also known as bucky grid named after Bucky- Potter.
X-RAY FILM:
X-ray film is placed after the Bucky grid. The film turns black when x-rays interact with it and when the x-rays are absorbed it stays white. Thus an image is formed in x-ray are black, grey, white in colour.
WORKING OF X-RAY MACHINE:
The heart of an x-ray machine is an electrode pair- a cathode and an anode inside a glass vacuum tube. The cathode is a heated filament which is a fluorescent lamp. The machine allows electrons to pass through the filament, heating it up. The heat sputters electrons off of the filament surface. A flat disc made of tungsten which is the positively charged anode draws electrons across the tube.
There is an extremely high voltage difference between the anode and the cathode so that the electrons flow through the tube with great force. The tungsten atom loses an electron in one of the lower orbitals during the collision of speeding electron.
The extra energy called photon is released when an electron in the higher orbital immediately falls to the lower orbital. It occurs as a big drop, so the photon has a higher energy level- An x-ray photon.
The high impact collision involved in x-ray production generates a lot of heat. In order to keep it from melting, a rotating anode is placed. Also, a cool oil bath surrounding the envelope absorbs heat.
A thick lead shield surrounds the entire mechanism. To avoid the x-rays escaping in all directions. Also, the window shield is placed to get a narrow x-ray beam. The escaping beam passes through a series of filters before reaching the patient.
Generally, the doctor’s keeps the film image as a negative, which is it appears darker when exposed to more light and lighter when exposed to less light.
Therefore the hard material such as bones appears white in colour and the soft materials like tissues appear black/grey in colour.
PRECAUTIONS AND PREPARATIONS:
• Depending on what part of the body is to be x-rayed, the patient is asked to lie on a table, sit or stand.
• In order to shield from x-rays, a lead apron may be draped over part of the patient body to be x-rayed.
• While taking chest x-ray, the patient is advised to take a deep breath and hold it for few seconds.
• It is important that pregnant women must avoid taking x-rays.
• It is instructed to remove the metal items from the patient body, that any block part of the image.
• It is instructed to remain still while taking x-ray because the movement of the patient can cause blurring of the image.
• All individuals working with diagnostic x-ray equipment shall wear a whole body personnel monitoring device and also wear a ring badge.
• It is instructed to wear a lead apron or thyroid shield while handling x-ray equipment.
RISKS:
X-rays can cause mutations in our DNA and therefore might lead to cancer later in life. For this reason, the World Health Organization and the United States Government classified x-ray as a carcinogen. Each procedure has a different associated risk that depends on the type of x-ray and part of the body being imaged.
SIDE EFFECTS:
There is an extremely low risk of short term side effects. Also, exposure to high radiation levels can have a range of effects such as:
• Fainting
• Bleeding
• Vomiting
• Hair loss
MAINTENANCE:
• Tube cleaning: The tube should regularly be cleared and parts replaced or adjusted as necessary.
• General performance and functions verification: Functional check includes testing the internal computer, taking the images of reference material, conducting an operational scan.
• Performance and safety testing: Routine performance and safety testing should be done by a trained professional.
REFERENCE:
• X-rays [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.nibib.nih.gov/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray procedure [ONLINE] Available at: http://everydayhealth.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• Components of x-ray [ONLINE] Available at: http://slideshare.net/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray machine [ONLINE] Available at: http://science.howstuffworks.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray machine maintenance [ONLINE] Available at: http://bravoimaging.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• Properties of x-rays [ONLINE] Available at: http://slideshare.net/[Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• Operating console
• High-frequency generator
• X-ray tube
• Internal
• External
Other parts include:
• Collimator
• Bucky Grid
• X-ray film
OPERATING CONSOLE:
To control the x-ray tube current and voltage the operating console is used. By means of this, a useful x-ray beam with proper quantity and quality is delivered. Radiation quantity refers to the number of x-rays or the intensity of the x-ray beam. To control the line compensation, KVp, Ma, exposure time. Radiation quantity is usually expressed in milli roentgens / milli ampere-second.
HIGH-FREQUENCY GENERATOR:
To power the x-ray tube, a high-frequency generator is used. Earlier, a high voltage generator is used. High-frequency generator operates on single-phase and gives less voltage. Also it is of smaller size and portable.
X-RAY TUBE:
X-ray tube can be classified as:
• Internal
• External
Internal parts include:
• Cathode: A filament that causes thermionic emission.
• Anode: A flat disc made of tungsten that draws the electrons across the field.
• The tube is vacuumed so that x-rays are produced isotropically.
COLLIMATOR:
The collimator is attached to the x-ray below the glass window where the useful beam is emitted. To avoid unnecessary exposure, to minimize the field of view, a collimator is used. The lead shutter is used to restrict the beam.
 |
| A collimator in x-ray machine; Source: http://xraycollimator.com/ |
BUCKY GRID:
Grid is similar to collimator but they have different positions. Grid is made of lead strips, these strips allowed rays at 90 degrees. The grid strips are placed right after the patient. It is also known as bucky grid named after Bucky- Potter.
X-RAY FILM:
X-ray film is placed after the Bucky grid. The film turns black when x-rays interact with it and when the x-rays are absorbed it stays white. Thus an image is formed in x-ray are black, grey, white in colour.
WORKING OF X-RAY MACHINE:
The heart of an x-ray machine is an electrode pair- a cathode and an anode inside a glass vacuum tube. The cathode is a heated filament which is a fluorescent lamp. The machine allows electrons to pass through the filament, heating it up. The heat sputters electrons off of the filament surface. A flat disc made of tungsten which is the positively charged anode draws electrons across the tube.
There is an extremely high voltage difference between the anode and the cathode so that the electrons flow through the tube with great force. The tungsten atom loses an electron in one of the lower orbitals during the collision of speeding electron.
The extra energy called photon is released when an electron in the higher orbital immediately falls to the lower orbital. It occurs as a big drop, so the photon has a higher energy level- An x-ray photon.
 |
| Working of x-ray machine; Source: http://science.howstuffworks.com/ |
The high impact collision involved in x-ray production generates a lot of heat. In order to keep it from melting, a rotating anode is placed. Also, a cool oil bath surrounding the envelope absorbs heat.
A thick lead shield surrounds the entire mechanism. To avoid the x-rays escaping in all directions. Also, the window shield is placed to get a narrow x-ray beam. The escaping beam passes through a series of filters before reaching the patient.
Generally, the doctor’s keeps the film image as a negative, which is it appears darker when exposed to more light and lighter when exposed to less light.
Therefore the hard material such as bones appears white in colour and the soft materials like tissues appear black/grey in colour.
PRECAUTIONS AND PREPARATIONS:
• Depending on what part of the body is to be x-rayed, the patient is asked to lie on a table, sit or stand.
• In order to shield from x-rays, a lead apron may be draped over part of the patient body to be x-rayed.
• While taking chest x-ray, the patient is advised to take a deep breath and hold it for few seconds.
• It is important that pregnant women must avoid taking x-rays.
• It is instructed to remove the metal items from the patient body, that any block part of the image.
• It is instructed to remain still while taking x-ray because the movement of the patient can cause blurring of the image.
• All individuals working with diagnostic x-ray equipment shall wear a whole body personnel monitoring device and also wear a ring badge.
• It is instructed to wear a lead apron or thyroid shield while handling x-ray equipment.
RISKS:
X-rays can cause mutations in our DNA and therefore might lead to cancer later in life. For this reason, the World Health Organization and the United States Government classified x-ray as a carcinogen. Each procedure has a different associated risk that depends on the type of x-ray and part of the body being imaged.
SIDE EFFECTS:
There is an extremely low risk of short term side effects. Also, exposure to high radiation levels can have a range of effects such as:
• Fainting
• Bleeding
• Vomiting
• Hair loss
MAINTENANCE:
• Tube cleaning: The tube should regularly be cleared and parts replaced or adjusted as necessary.
• General performance and functions verification: Functional check includes testing the internal computer, taking the images of reference material, conducting an operational scan.
• Performance and safety testing: Routine performance and safety testing should be done by a trained professional.
REFERENCE:
• X-rays [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.nibib.nih.gov/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray procedure [ONLINE] Available at: http://everydayhealth.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• Components of x-ray [ONLINE] Available at: http://slideshare.net/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray machine [ONLINE] Available at: http://science.howstuffworks.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• X-ray machine maintenance [ONLINE] Available at: http://bravoimaging.com/ [Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
• Properties of x-rays [ONLINE] Available at: http://slideshare.net/[Accessed 10 MARCH 2020].
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